Reptile Emerging Infectious Diseases                                                                                Articles  About  Report
Contact

01  Devrieseasis

Next

---

Known Species Affected:
Agama impalearis
Basiliscus pulumifrons
Brachylophus fasciatus
Chlamydosaurus kingii
Crotaphytus collaris
Ctenonotus gingivinus
Eublepharis macularius
Hydrosaurus pustulatus
Iguana delicatissima
Iguana iguana
Laemanctus serratus
Laudakia stellio
Leiocephalus personatus
Physignathus cocincinus
Pogona vitticeps
Uromastyx acanthinura
Uromastyx aegyptia
Uromastyx dispar
Uromastyx geyri
Uromastyx ornata



(Bauwens et al., 2014; Brockmann et al., 2023; Brockmann et al., 2020; Devloo et al., 2011; Haesendonck et al., 2015; Hellebuyck et al., 2017; Rossier et al., 2016) Cause of disease

Devrieseasis is caused by the gram-positive bacterium Devriesea agamarum that is closely related to Brachybacterium faecium and Dermabacter hominis [8]. D. agamarum is described as non-motile, non-acid-fast, and non-sporulating. They are short, approximately 1 to 2 um in length, rod-shaped, and exhibit various cellular arrangements (singly, in pairs, or in short chains). When grown on sheep blood agar, D. agamarum often appears as whitish, mucoid colonies with hemolytic features [5,13].

Devrieseasis affects various lizard species and is considered a contagious skin disease. Although it has caused dermatitis in most affected species, D. agamarum has been detected in the oral microbiota of healthy individuals [6]. Eight distinct strains have been identified using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technology. Studies have recognized AFLP types A, B, C, and D as the predominant strains affecting lizards [4]. Additionally, D. agamarum can cause both primary and opportunistic infections [7].

History
In 2008, the novel taxon D. agamarum was first described from bacterial isolates from five captive agamid lizards, three of which belonged to the genus Uromastyx and presented with dermatitis and septicemia (blood poisoning). From this discovery by Belgian researchers, D. agamarum has been highly associated with skin infections in lizards.  The name D. agamarum was named after a veterinary microbiologist and derived from the genus of lizards commonly affected by this bacterium [13].
      • Devriesea: L.A. Devriese
      • agamarum: Agama, belongs to the family Agamidae  
Since then, D. agamarum has been reported affecting captive and wild lizards [5]. In 2011, the first documented conservation threat to an endangered wild reptile, the Antillean iguana (Iguana delicatissima), was reported in Saint-Barthélemy by a bacterial disease (devrieseasis) [7].

Clinical Signs and Progression

Clinical signs of devrieseasis include cheilitis (i.e., inflammation of the labial region) and dermatitis (i.e., thickened, yellow, crusty lesions) (Figure 1)[3]. Other clinical signs involve systemic infection, including septicemia, which dark discoloration of skin, anorexia, and severe depression have served as indicators [10], and gout affecting the kidney and visceral organs [5]. Additionally, large raised cutaneous and subcutaneous nodules can restrict movement, often impacting feeding habits and foraging activity (Figure 1). Affected individuals may also be asymptomatic [7].

Transmission and Epidemiology


D. agamarum exhibits high environmental persistence, with studies documenting its presence in sand and distilled water for up to five months. Additionally, the pathogen can persist within crusted dermal lesions of infected individuals for up to two months [11]. D. agamarum is primarily transmitted via direct contact between infected individuals. Lizards with traumatic lesions, such as bite wounds, are highly susceptible to infection [5]. Invasive species have also been shown to play a role in disease transmission, as they can introduce a disease to an unaffected population. D. agamarum is present in the oral microbiota of green iguanas (Iguana iguana) (Figure 2). Green iguanas are a non-native invasive species that pose a particular threat to Lesser Antillean iguanas (Iguana delicatissima) [7]. Additional species that can act as reservoirs for this disease include bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), as D. agamarum has also been detected in their oral cavity [4,8,6]. Although bearded dragons are asymptomatic carrier of devreseasis, studies have also reported an association between D. agamarum and dental disease in these lizards [12].

D. agamarum has been mainly detected in Europe (i.e., Croatia, Austria, Switzerland, Spain, and Belgium) and the Caribbean (Saint-Barthélemy). Although the majority of infected individuals are captive animals, its emergence in wild populations is highly achievable through asymptomatic carriers and the pathogen’s persistent environmental survival [5]. The severity of disease also varies among species. For example, agamid and iguanid lizards have higher mortality rates than dab lizards, which often exhibit higher disease rates [10].

Diagnosis

The initial examination of devrieseasis is based on the appearance of dermal crusts and other clinical signs. Microbiological examinations of skin biopsies, cloacal swabs, and oral swabs using various tests can confirm morphological and biochemical characteristics. Histopathological analysis of skin biopsies reveals epidermal hyperplasia, spongiosis, fluid accumulation, organized clusters of immune cells, and orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis. An active immune response is also demonstrated with hyperemia (i.e., increased blood flow) and heterophil infiltration [7]. Additionally, species confirmation is performed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene [2]. Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionisation Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is another technique used to identify bacterial species. However, because it uses standardized databases, D. agamarum has not yet been included, but customized databases have been able to use this technique [2,3].

Treatment and Prevention

Antibiotics used to treat devrieseasis include 5 mg/kg of ceftiofur, a third-generation cephalosporin. This treatment was effective in bearded dragons by day 18 and in the Uromastyx species by day 12. Although enrofloxacin treatment has been reported, it has not successfully eliminated D. agamarum [9,11]. Additionally, the initial use of 15mg/kg ceftazidime was ineffective as cheilitis recurred in infected individuals. Later studies have increased the ceftazidime dose to 20 mg/kg and paired it with weekly surface disinfection and lesion debridement. However, this was unsuccessful as well. Similarly, another study administered 10 mg/kg ceftazidime to infected lizards, along with antiseptic rinsing and surgical debridement of lesions, and this study yielded effective outcomes [5]. Autovaccinations (i.e., custom-made vaccines made from isolated pathogens to treat specific bacterial strains) can also be useful in emerging diseases. In particular, studies have demonstrated that the Ribi-adjunvanted vaccine is a promising approach, inducing seroconversion (i.e., production of enough antibodies to be detected) and partial protection. However, the Ribi-adjunvanted vaccine is most effective against septiemia and not towards dermatitis [10].

Disinfection of surfaces with 70% ethanol, 0.01% boric acid, 0.05-0.5% sodium hypochlorite, and chlorhexidine can help control pathogen contamination in captive settings [11]. Additionally, proper quarantine strategies should be implemented for sick individuals, and precautionary measures should be taken for newly acquired animals [4]. It is also advised to prevent traumatic skin lesions through appropriate housing and protective practices [1].  

Further Research

Research should focus on treatment (i.e., further analysis of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance), diagnostic techniques (i.e., MALDI-TOF MS), and the impact on wild lizard populations [3,9]. Additionally, preventive measures such as asymptomatic carrier management and novel immunogenic proteins as potential vaccine targets should be further explored [10]. Lastly, research on the genetic diversity of D. agamarum can help elucidate virulence differences among strains [4]. Continuous surveillance and monitoring of the disease can help manage the number of infected individuals.

Readings

1. Bauwens, L., Vercammen, F., Hendrickx, F., Pasmans, F., & Martel, A. (2014). Prevalence of Devriesea agamarum in the lizard collection of The Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp. Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research, 2(3), 88-91. https://doi.org/10.19227/jzar.v2i3.49

2. Brockmann, M., Aupperle-Lellbach, H., Gentil, M., Heusinger, A., Müller, E., Marschang, R. E., & Pees, M. (2020). Challenges in microbiological identification of aerobic bacteria isolated from the skin of reptiles. PloS One, 15(10), e0240085. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240085

3. Brockmann, M., Leineweber, C., Hellebuyck, T., Martel, A., Pasmans, F., Gentil, M., Müller, E., & Marschang, R. E. (2023). Establishment of a real-time PCR assay for the detection of Devriesea agamarum in lizards. Animals, 13(5), 881. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13050881

4. Devloo, R., Martel, A., Hellebuyck, T., Vranckx, K., Haesebrouck, F., & Pasmans, F. (2011). Bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) asymptomatically infected with Devriesea agamarum are a source of persistent clinical infection in captive colonies of dab lizards (Uromastyx sp.). Veterinary Microbiology, 150(3-4), 297–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.01.029

5. Gallego, M., Juan-Sallés, C., & Hellebuyck, T. (2018). Devriesea agamarum associated cheilitis in a North African spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx acanthinura) in Spain. Open Veterinary Journal, 8(2), 224–228. https://doi.org/10.4314/ovj.v8i2.19

6. Haesendonck, R., Van Nieuwerburgh, F., Haesebrouck, F., Deforce, D., Pasmans, F., & Martel, A. (2015). Genome sequence of Devriesea agamarum, isolated from agamid lizards with dermatitis. Genome Announcements, 3(4), e00949-15. https://doi.org/10.1128/genomeA.00949-15

7. Hellebuyck, T., Questel, K., Pasmans, F., Brantegem, L. V., Philip, P., & Martel, A. (2017). A virulent clone of Devriesea agamarum affects endangered Lesser Antillean iguanas (Iguana delicatissima). Scientific Reports, 7(1), 12491. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-11874-x

8. Hellebuyck, T., Martel, A., Chiers, K., Haesebrouck, F., & Pasmans, F. (2009). Devriesea agamarum causes dermatitis in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). Veterinary Microbiology, 134(3-4), 267–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.08.021

9. Hellebuyck, T., Pasmans, F., Haesebrouck, F., & Martel, A. (2009). Designing a successful antimicrobial treatment against Devriesea agamarum infections in lizards. Veterinary Microbiology, 139(1-2), 189–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.05.003

10. Hellebuyck, T., Van Steendam, K., Deforce, D., Blooi, M., Van Nieuwerburgh, F., Bullaert, E., Ducatelle, R., Haesebrouck, F., Pasmans, F., & Martel, A. (2014). Autovaccination confers protection against Devriesea agamarum associated septicemia but not dermatitis in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). PloS One, 9(12), e113084. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113084

11. Latney, L. V., & Wellehan, J. (2013). Selected emerging infectious diseases of squamata. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 16(2), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2013.01.003

12. Levy, I., Mans, C., Zapanta, K., & Krumbeck, J. (2026). Dental disease and diet are associated with changes in the microbiota of the oral cavity in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). American Journal of Veterinary Research, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.25.08.0292

13. Martel, A., Pasmans, F., Hellebuyck, T., Haesebrouck, F., & Vandamme, P. (2008). Devriesea agamarum gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel actinobacterium associated with dermatitis and septicaemia in agamid lizards. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 58, 2206–2209. https://doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.65478-0

14. Rossier, C., Hoby, S., Wenker, C., Brawand, S. G., Thomann, A., Brodard, I., Jermann, T., & Posthaus, H. (2016). Devrieseasis in a plumed basilisk (Basiliscus plumifrons) in a zoologic collection. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 47(1), 280–285. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24773891